 "The Judgement of Solomon" by Peter Paul Rubens (1617) Text: Matthew 5:25 "Agree with thine adversary quickly, while thou art in the way with him; lest at any time the adversary deliver thee to the judge, and the judge deliver thee to the officer, and thou be cast into prison."
In this verse, an ancient version of "settling out of court" to escape further penalty for a debt owed is taking place. According to the Roman law, if a person had a quarrel that he could not settle privately he had a right to order his adversary to accom-pany him to the praetor (magistrate). From Maimonides: "It was an affirmative command in the law to appoint "judges" and "officers" in every country and province as it is said, Deuteronomy 16:18. These judges were to be fixed in the Sanhedrim and such as that engage in lawsuits were to go before them. These (judges) "officers" are the masters of the rod and scourge, in that they beat and scourge delinquents. Those that stand before the judges do all that they do by the order of the judges.'' If the adversary refused, the one wishing to seek justice could solicit witnesses to the event and offer their word as ample proof. All that was required of securing a witness was to approach the person and say: "May I take you to witness?" If the would-be witness was willing, then this witness offered the tip of his ear to be touched by the one seeking justice. If the ear was touched, an agreement had been made. (A form of this same custom a was observed toward witnesses in some other legal ceremonies among the Romans.) All legal matters were required to have witness. Only worthless persons, such as thieves and robbers, might be dragged before a judge without corroborating witness. Once the person seeking justice had obtained a witness, the law allowed for the two together (the wronged party and the witness) to forcibly drag the adversary to court by any means possible, even by the neck if need be.(Matthew 18:28). If, however, on the way to the judge the difficulty was settled, no further legal steps were taken. The witness was dismissed and both parties went their own way. This happened often. Usually because the guilty party knew there was a "witness" against him and the odds were not in his favor of winning at court. From Blackstone’s Commentary, iii. p. 299: "It is remarkable that this very direction (settling of a lawsuit) is found in the Roman law of the Twelve Tables, which expressly directed the plaintiff and defendant to make up the matter while they were in the way, or going to the praetor ." From the Talmud: "There are men that say --or men usually say-- "whilst thou art in the way with thine adversary, be obedient". (9T. Bab. Sanhedrim, fol. 95. 20.) In this text, Christ is referring to this legal custom of dragging a guilty party to court. He is admonishing the guilty party to confess and make amends while he has the chance as it may goes worse for him when he faces the judge. Copyright by Ancient Bible History - Eden
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 Samuel anoints David to be King TEXT: Psalms 23:5 "Thou anointest my head with oil, my cup runneth over." Augustine commented that the Psalm 23 could be aptly called the "Hymn of the Martyrs" because it so perfectly described their trials, suffering and the comfort that they longed for. One such comfort mentioned in this allegorical passage is the very ancient custom of anointing. Anointing is a very old custom. Most ancient people practiced it in some form or another and for many different reasons. 1. According to scripture (Exodus 28:41), priest of Israel were ordained by having oil poured over their heads. 2. A carving on an interior wall of Seti 1's temple shows his him at his coronation being anointed with holy water by Horus. 3. Many early cultures, including the Greeks, Romans and Jews, anointed their dead before burial. 4. The most common type of anointing occurred when welcoming a guest into one's home. Servants applied oil to the brow and feet of weary visitors to sooth their dusty and possibly sunburned skin. A visitors who was considered special, beloved or a guest of honor was greeted at the door with a bowl of sweet scented oil that was poured lavishly upon their head. Captain Wilson, a nineteenth century Oriental traveler reported: "I once had this (anointing) ceremony performed on myself in the house of a great and rich Indian, in the presence of a large company. The gentleman of the house poured upon my hands and arms a delightful odoriferous perfume; (then he) put a golden cup in my hands and poured wine into it until it ran over, assuring me at the same time that it was a great pleasure to him to receive me and that I would find a rich supply in his house." (An account found in "Oriental Customs" by Rev. Samuel Burder, 1822. No. 539.) There are several thoughts as to how the custom of anointing house guests came about: 1. Fragrant oils were often used to cover body odors. A traveler or guest may have lost his pleasant scent during travel, Anointing not only refreshed but covered any odor acquired on the journey. Anointing made the guest more acceptable to himself and others. A host seeing to this nicety was held in high esteem. 2. The ancient world could be a smelly place. By placing fragrance on or about the head, the one wearing the oil enjoyed a pleasant fragrance as he moved about. 3. Oil was more soothing than water when it came to removing dirt and dust from parched skin. From earliest times, anointing oil was made from olives. The oil might be left pure, but oftentimes it was mixed with spices to produce an exotic fragrance. Some ingredients for the fragrant oils needed to be imported, such as myrrh from Arabia or Africa, which made the finished mixture expensive. Besides being poured over the head or feet, anointing oils were applied to other parts of the body as well. Reasons included personal hygiene, for medicinal purposes, affection or pleasure, religious ritual and symbolic meaning. 1. Neglecting to anoint one's self was a sign of mourning. 2. Neglecting to anoint a friend or guest was a sign of disrespect. (In Luke 7:46, Jesus accuses Simon of poor hospitality when he fails to anoint the head of the "one whom he has invited to eat with him ". 3. Anointing the feet of a master or parent demonstrated respect or love. (This ancient custom was commented on by Aristophanes and described how daughters were to anoint the feet of their parents after they had first washed them. Vespes, p. 473, 516, 517.) 4. Anointing the feet was an act of humility or supplication. (In John 12:3, Mary anoints the feet of Jesus with costly perfume.) 5. Anointing one's own face or hand was viewed as a sign of joy or happiness. From the diary of Jean-Baptiste Tavernier: "Among the Arabs, I found that they were always ready to accept a present of olive oil. As soon as someone received it, he lifted his turban and anointed his head, face and his beard, (while)at the same time lifting his eyes to heaven and saying: 'God be thanked'." (Les Six Voyages de Jean Baptiste Tavernier - A New Relation of the Grand Seignor's Seraglio, Ch 8, p.47. Published 1675.) In this passage, the psalmist is representing himself as a house guest of God. And God, who is the most generous host of all , has prepared a great feast and a royal welcome, which is poetically described as "anointing the head with an overfull cup". Copyright by Ancient Bible History - Eden Games Inc.  Text: Luke 2:44-45
"But they, supposing him to have been in the company, went a day's journey; and they sought him among their kinsfolk and acquaintance. And when they found him not, they turned back again to Jerusalem, seeking him." This passage recounts the incident of Joseph and Mary, upon leaving Jerusalem after the Passover celebration, discovering that Jesus was not among their traveling party and they are forced to return to the city and search for Him. In ancient times, depending upon the condition of the road and the terrain (1 Kings 19:4), a day's journey varied from eighteen to thirty miles. According to James Freeman: "The first day of travel was purposefully shorter in distance than the usual distance traveled on other days. The custom was for a caravan to begin its journey moving quite slowly and then to camp for the night at a distance of three to eight miles from the original starting point. That way, if any goods or supplies were discovered absent, someone of the party could with little trouble return to the starting point, collect the missing items, and rejoin the caravan in time to continue with the journey." (Bible Manners and Customs – Notes on Luke 2:44, 45) It is commonly thought that Jesus' family had traveled a substantial distance or length of time before they missed Him, but instead, it would have only been a few hours. According to the Misna, Akrabba and the Talmud, "…wherefore, as Galilee lay north of Jerusalem, the bound of this day's journey must be Elath. Thus Nazareth was three days journey from Jerusalem. Most Jewish writers* agree that a day's journey was ten parsas or large miles, which means forty lesser miles and the distance a middling (typical) man can walk on a middling day in the months of or Nisan, the time when days and nights were alike. However, it cannot also be thought that women and children should be able to travel so many miles a day. Therefore, very likely, this day's journey was shorter: " Bible scholars believe that Joseph and Mary set out on their journey on the twenty-second day of Nisan. The first stopping place of nearly all traveling parties leaving Jerusalem for the north was Beer or Beeroth. It is still a popular stopping point for today's travelers. Beer is only eight or ten miles from the city --about a three hour walk. *T. Hieros. Beracot, fol. 2. 3. T. Bab. Pesachim, fol. 93. 2. & 94. & Tosaphta in ib. fol. 11. 2. Seder Tephillot, fol. 144. 1. Ed. Basil. Copyright by Ancient Bible History - Eden Games Inc.  TEXT: Romans 8:15 "But ye have received the Spirit of adoption whereby we cry, Abba, Father."
The practice of adoption is very old and many ancient people practiced it including the Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans. The term 'adoption' is only found in the New Testament. However, in the Old Testament, the idea is alluded to in two stories. 1. Exodus 2:10: Pharaoh's daughter took the baby she drew from the water as her son and named him Moses. Exodus 2:10 2. Esther 2:7: Esther's cousin, Mordecai, brought her up because she had no mother or father. Adoption is an ancient practice that dates back to the code of Hammurabi (Babylon-1772 BC). Paragraphs 185 through 193 of this law defined the particulars of how natural parents might release a natural child into the custody and claim of another person. Upon adoption, the new parent would receive all full and legal rights to the child and the child could be accepted into a family and given all the privileges enjoyed by a natural son. Both the Greeks and the Romans practiced some form of adoption. However, unlike the oriental cultures (in which slaves were sometimes adopted when a natural heir did not exist) the Greeks and Romans usually limited adoption to free citizens. It is most likely the Roman form of adoption that is being referenced in the introductory text as it corresponds to huiothesia, which means the “placing as a son". It is not so much a word of relationship but of position. There were two parts to the Roman adoption process: a private arrangement between the parties and a formal public declaration of the fact. According to the rules of adoption, the adopted child/person did not have to be already related to the adopting father, but sometimes they were. An Uncle might choose a nephew to become a son, or a Grandfather might legally take a grandson to replace a lost son. After adoption, a son ceased to belong to his birth family and became in every respect the child of the person or family who adopted them. Upon the death of the new father, the adopted son inherited the estate. If the new father happened to have other natural sons, the estate might be divided equally among all the sons (including the adopted son) depending on the terms of the father's will and the civil laws. In this situation, the Roman law was specific how estates were to be handled. In the case of a master with no heir, a favorite slave might be adopted for the sole purpose of having a legal heir to inherit the master's estate. In ancient times, a slave was never permitted to use the term Abba (father) or Imma (mother) when approaching the master or mistress for conversation. But after the adoption, the slave was considered a full son and was entitled to call the master father and the mistress mother. The theologian, Charles Merivale B.D.( 1808-1893), when illustrating Paul's acquaintance with Roman law, wrote: “The process of legal adoption by which the chosen heir became entitled not only to the reversion of the property but to the civil status, to the burdens as well as the rights of the adopter, became, as it were, his other self, one with him. This too, is a Roman principle peculiar at this time to the Romans, but…unknown to the Jews. It certainly is not found in the legislation of Moses nor mentioned anywhere as a usage among the children of the covenant. We have but a faint conception of the force with which such an illustration would speak to one familiar with the Roman practice; how it would serve to impress upon him the assurance that the adopted son of God becomes --in a peculiar and intimate sense-- one with the heavenly Father.” [“Conversion of the Roman Empire – Boyle Lectures, p.99 (1864)] The use of the word adoption in this text is describing the process by which the believer in Christ becomes a full son (or daughter) to the heavenly God the Father. The permission to use of the word Abba is thought to indicate the Christian's release and salvation from a slavery to sin. Copyright by Ancient Bible History - Eden Games Inc. 
"Christ Teaching the Disciples"
by Duccio di Buoninsegna (Painted 1308-1311) Text: 1 Chronicles. 16:36
"All the people said, Amen, and praised the Lord." According to Strong's Exhaustive Concordance, Amen, in Hebrew, literally means sure (to prop up or support). In the Greek, it means firm. It also has a figurative meaning of faithful. The use of the word Amen dates back to very ancient times. In the Bible, it can be found in Numbers 5:22 and Deuteronomy. 27:15-26 where it is spoken by the children of Israel as a confirmatory response. And, with only slight differences, it can also be found in all of the Assyrian dialects where it is used as both a verb and an adjective. The word Amen is usually applied at the end of a declaration or pronouncement. However, the Orientals also use it at the beginning of such a statement, as do the English (on occasion). The Mohammedans customarily close every public prayer by saying Amen, with the meaning being: "be it firm or established that with what has been said I agree." From Samuel Burder: "During New Testament times, it was customary for the people --whether in the synagogues or at home-- to add "Amen" to any prayers being offered. (Matthew. 6:13; 1 Corinthians. 14:16) This practice was taken so seriously that the Jewish doctors gave three rules for pronouncing of the word Amen in public: 1. That it not be pronounced too hastily and swiftly, but with a grave and distinct voice. 2. That it be not louder than the tone of him that made the blessing. 3. It was to be expressed in faith, with a certain expectation that God would bless them and hear their prayer. ("Oriental Customs", No. 438. Published 1822.) In this particular text, the cry of Amen is being uttered by the people at the close of the reciting of one of David's psalms. By saying such, they were giving pubic affirmation of their renewed acceptance of the provisions of God's covenant. Copyright by Ancient Bible History - Eden Games Inc.  Assyrian King, Tiglath-pileser III, stands over an enemy. (Bas-relief from the Central Palace at Nimrud.) Text: Joshua 10:24
"Come near, put your feet upon the necks of these kings. And they came near, and put their feet upon the necks of them." The introductory text describes an unusual and unique ceremony associated with Bible warfare called the subjugation ceremony. It was the last official act of a formal military surrender whereby the king, general or leader of a conquered army was forced to prostrate himself upon the ground with his head bent far enough forward so that the foot of the conquering king, general or leader could be placed in the center of his neck. This act proclaimed publicly that the enemy had been overthrow and his army rendered powerless. The custom of subjugation was practiced extensively among the ancient Orientals, and as seen in the book of Joshua, the Israelites performed the ritual as well (See Gen. 49:8 and 1 Cor. 15:25). In this instance, Joshua is commanding his victorious generals to put their feet on the necks of the conquered Amorite kings, after which these kings were to be put to death. From Rev. Joseph Roberts: "In the east, this is a favorite way of triumphing over a fallen foe. In the history of the battle of the gods or giants, particular mention is made of the closing scene how the conquerors went and trampled on their enemies. When people are disputing, should one be a little pressed, and the other begins to triumph, the former will say: "I tread upon the neck and after that beat thee." A low caste man insulting one who is high, is sure to hear someone say to the offended individual: "Put your feet on his neck." (Oriental Illustrations of the Bible, p. 137. (1844). From Edward Gibbon: "But neither authority nor art could frame the most important machine, the soldier himself; and if the ceremonies of Constantine always suppose the safe and triumphal return of the emperor, his tactics seldom soar above the means of escaping a defeat, and procrastinating the war." One of those ceremonies is thought to include the Emperor's "trampling on the necks of the captive Saracens, while the singers chanted, 'Thou hast made my enemies my footstool!' and the people shouted forty times the Kyrie elesion (Greek: Lord Have Mercy)." (Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, p.369 Published 1787. Also Ceremonial (I. ii. c.19, p353). That it was an ancient military custom for the conqueror to place his foot upon the neck and other body areas of the conquered is also attested to in sculpture and on many Assyrian and Egyptian monuments. temple walls. Bible commentators view this passage not so much an account of undo cruelty and humiliation to enemies, but rather as two symbolical acts. 1.) Joshua's act, as supreme commander, in instructing his lesser generals to inflict the subjugation on these kings, would have been viewed by other Canaanite tribes as a high insult, thus instigating new conflicts. 2.) And by instructing his generals to perform the ceremony of subjugation, Joshua gave his generals an object lesson in what God promised to do all their enemies against whom they fought. (Joshua 10:25) Copyright by Ancient Bible History - Eden Games Inc.  1652 engraving by Nicolaas de Bruyn showing Nebuchadnezzar in center foreground wearing a crown and holding a scepter, Shadrach, Meshack and Abednego in the fiery furnace to the right, and the idol to the left. Used by permission of the British Museum. TEXT: Daniel 3:6 (KJV) And whoso falleth not down and worshipeth shall the same hour be cast into the midst of a burning fiery furnace."
This text is especially interesting as it is the first mention in the Bible of time being divided into smaller segments: namely hours. About Time: From Herodotus: "The Chaldeans, known for their and scholarly abilities, were the first to divide the day into 12 equal parts. They introduced it to the Babylonians, who then passed it on to the Greeks. " (Lib. ii., c. 109.) The Greeks disagree. They believe that they were the first to divide the day into segments and offer as proof Anzsimander's invention of the sundial, an actual demonstration of the dividing of a day. However, this proof doesn't take into consideration that as early as Isaiah (8th century BC) the Hebrews had some method of telling the time by use of the sun's shadow. Such mention is made in the story of Hezekiah and the miracle granted to him of having the shadow move backwards ten steps on the 'Dial of Ahaz' (or more correctly on the stairway leading to Ahaz's chamber. (2 Kings 20:11) Most likely, the Jews learned the idea of regular hour divisions from the Babylonians during their captivity as there is no indication that they had an understanding of the idea before, only afterwards. About Ovens: The fiery furnace of Daniel is believed to have been either a 'brick kiln' or a lime oven. Such furnaces were numerous in Babylon, especially on the Plain of Dura. They were cone shaped, constructed out of bricks, had an opening in one side wall and most often fueled with a mixture of chaff and crude oil. Such a fuel produces a tremendous heat. Under normal circumstances, the unbaked bricks or limestone rocks were stacked around the inner solid walls of the oven. Then a fire was set in the middle. In no time, the bricks or clay would turn white hot. As the baking continued, more fuel could be added through the opening. The furnace or "kaminos" (Greek) mentioned in Rev. 9:2 is probably a brick kiln of this same type. Burning alive is a very ancient punishment. Some scholars believe that it was a popular method for executing criminals, prisoners of wars, and enemies of the state. Although there are not many ancient examples of this kind of death penalty, a few are recorded. There are only a few recorded examples of this practice. 1. In the 2nd. millennium B.C., a Babylonian cuneiform text records that servants were threatened with this kind of punishment. The same Aramaic word found in Daniel for furnace (attun) is also found in the Babylonian in this cuneiform text (utunum). 2. Nebuchadnezzar's son-in-law, Nergal-sharusur, in one of his royal inscription claimed to have burned to death adversaries and disobedient ones. 3. In Jeremiah 29:22, two false prophets were put to death in the manner of burning. From John Chardin: "I saw ovens in Ispajan (Persia) that were heated up at royal command to scare dishonest bakers into obedience. It was not unusual for these men to overcharge for bread during scarce times. He mentions that cooks were roasted on the spit and bakers thrown into their own ovens. ("Travels into Persia and the East Indies", Published 1668) In the introductory text, the word for hour is from the Chaldee "shaah" . But it is not the sixty-minute period that we recognize today as one hour. Rather it is more accurately translated “to look”, with the meaning of "a glance of the eye". In this instance, "shaah" probably means at the "specific time of the looking at". In other words, at the moment that the people were commanded to look up at the idol, if they did not immediately look, then at that same moment they would be burned alive. Copyright by Ancient Bible History - Eden Games Inc.  Queen Kawit, 11th Dynasty consort of Pharaoh Mentuhotep II, is depicted on her sarcophagus holding a hand mirror while she sips a drink and has her short hair arranged by a servant. (Egyptian Museum in Cairo.) Text: 1 Cor.13:12 "For now we see through a glass, darkly; but then face to face.
In this text, the meaning of the word glass is derived from two Greek words: "esoptron", a mirror as for looking into, and "horao", to gaze with wide open eyes as at a reflection. Mirrors have been around since ancient times. The early Chinese, Egyptians, Mesopotamians and even Jews were known to possess mirrors. Until late Roman times, mirrors were commonly made of bronze, and were small, about the size of today's hand mirrors. Early mirrors had handles made of stone, wood or metal that might be decorated with carvings or jewels. Ancients took great pride in their mirrors, and to keep their surfaces reflecting well, continual polishing was required. A sponge containing pounded pumice stone was attached to a mirror's handle, and if a scratch or rust spot developed, it could be immediately polished away. In Egypt, mirrors were kept so well-polished that some of these early looking glasses, discovered at an archaeological dig in Thebes, have been able to have their shine restored, even though they had been buried for many centuries. In the ancient world, mirrors held a great attraction, especially for women. Historical sources record that Egyptian ladies were in the habit of carrying a mirror with them whenever they were out in public. Keeping appraised of their appearance was important, but mirrors also served as a decorative accessory to their clothing. From St. Cyril : "When entering their temples to worship, they (Egyptian women) carry a mirror in one hand". (Quoted in J.G. Wilkinson's "Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians," vol. iii., pp. 384-386. Published 1837, London.) From Dr. Thomas Shaw: "This is now (still) done by females of Eastern nations. In the Levant, looking-glasses are a part of female dress. The Moorish women in Barabary are so fond of their ornaments, and particularly of their looking-glasses, that they made their mirrors a part of the ornaments of their costume, which they hang (the mirrors) upon their breasts; that they will not lay them aside, even when, after the drudgery of the day, they are obliged to go two or three miles with a pitcher or a goat-skin to fetch water. ("Shaw's Travels or Observations Relating to Several Parts of Barbary and the Levant ", p. 24. Published 1738.) Some Biblical scholars believe that the Israelite women were equally infatuated with their mirrors and imitated the worship custom of the Egyptian women .They offer for proof, Exodus 38:8. "He made the laver of brass…of the looking glasses of the women assembling…at the door of the tabernacle of the congregation." Because of the adverse effects of sunlight, dust or dampness on their metal surface, ancient mirrors were kept covered with a thin veil or see-thru cloth. The Septuagint describes this covering as a "thin, transparent fabric like gauze, perhaps even fine silk". While mirrors might be uncovered for a more accurate, quick look, generally they retained their protective covering at all times. Those attempting to see their likeness peered through a filmy, shadowy fabric layer. It is from this mirror-covering custom, still practiced in Paul's day, that he draws the beautiful, poetic simile: To "see through a glass darkly" Here he uses it to illustrate mankind's inability to fully comprehend when beholding the divine (with the implication that we will not truly "see" until the divine is reflected in us.) Copyright by Ancient Bible History - Eden Games Inc.  Widely circulated photo of ancient bronze flag attached to copper pole. Flag has been dated to 2400 BC and was discovered at an archaeological site near Shahdad, Iran in 1971. Text: Numbers 2:2 "Every man of the children of Israel shall pitch by his own standard, with the ensign of their father's house." KJV
"Each by his standard, with ensigns of the house of their fathers, do the sons of Israel encamp; over against, round about the tent of meeting, they encamp.'"(YLT) The Hebrew word for standard is "degel" and means a chief flag or banner. And the Hebrew word for ensign is "oth" and means a sign of appearance, evidence or monument. While this chapter in Numbers is especially insightful as to how the children of Isreal organized themselves when encamped* (see note below), verse 2 raises two interesting questions. How many flags were erected in the camp of Israel? And what did these ancient flags look like? When it comes to interpreting Number 2:2, Biblical scholars have found two meanings. Some think that there was both a chief (division) flag (dehgel) and secondary tribe, group or even household group flags (oth); meaning that each tent was pitched in the assigned division (his own standard) and segmented by tribes and again by households (with the ensign of their father's). Others think the text to be a statement accompanied with emphasis, meaning that "dehgel" is the subject and "oth" is descriptive; such as "a chief banner appearing as a monument". While the Bible is vague as to how many flags, and it does not give any information as to the design and materials of Israel's banners or the symbols adorning them, researches tend to think that the culture of the day may give good insight and that the Israelite flags probably resembled Egyptian military ensigns similar to those found on monuments. In general, Egyptian flags were umbrella or fan-like in form, made of ostrich feathers, and attached to very tall poles. One or more colorful shawls (long strips of decorated cloth) were draped around and tied into place just below the flag's base. And sculptured symbols, made of metal and mostly of religious significance, were fastened to the top of the pole. These flags could be quite heavy and were usually transported upright on a rolling cart or braced on several men’s shoulders. However, the discovery of the 9 1/4" square bronze flag at the archaeological dig near Shahdad, Iran has presented new considerations and possibilities for Israel's flags. Decorations on Israel's flags. Early Jewish writer/historians record that the colors adorning the Hebrew flags were the same as those of the precious stones that represented each tribe in the breastplate of the high priest [Exo_28:17-21]. The Targum of Jonathan describes the ornamental top pieces of Israel's flags as: Reuben the form of a man, Judah the form of a lion, Ephraim the form of an ox, Dan the form of an eagle, so that they might be like the cherubim the prophet Ezekiel saw. (Ezekiel 1:10) [This is a translation or paraphrase of a certain portion of the Old Testament Scriptures in the Chaldee or Aramaic language (dialect.)] Whatever the material, color, design and ornamentation, these flags served a two-fold purpose, that of stating the identity of one's division, tribe, group, family, or household; and that of identifying one's location in the camp. From Joseip PItts: (An account of an early Arabian military caravan and the use of the ornaments decorating the top of their flag poles on dark days and at night.) "They are somewhat like iron stoves (the ornamental top pieces) into which they put short dry wood, which some of the camels are loaded with. It (the wood) is carried in great sacks which have a hole near the bottom, from which the servants take it out as they see the fires need a recruit. Every cotter (company) has one of these poles belonging to it, some of which have ten or twelve, of these lights on their tops. They (tops) are likewise of different figures as well as numbers; one perhaps oval, one like a gate; another triangle, or like an N or an M, etc; so that every one knows by them his respective cottor." "Religion and Manners of the Mahometans", p.150-151. Published 1738, London.) Camp of Israel When stationery, the camp of Israel was grouped into four divisions that consisted of three tribes each. From Wesley's commentary: "It is supposed that the tribes were placed at 2000 cubits distance from the Tabernacle, which was the space between the people and the ark...with the Levites encamped round about it and separate from the other tribes. It can also be observed that those tribes that were nearest of kin (or of a like relationship) to each other were placed together. Division 1: Judah, Issachar, and Zebulun. These were the three youngest sons of Leah. Judah, being the eldest, was placed in command. Division 2: Reuben and Simeonm, the oldest sons of Leah along with Gad, the oldest son Leah's handmaid (Zilpah). Reuben, as the eldest, was placed in command. Division 3: Ephraim, Manasseh, and Benjamin were all descended from Rachel. Joseph, being older than Benjamin, his oldest son, Ephraim, was placed in command. Division 4: Dan and Naphtali, the sons of Rachel's handmaid (Bilhah), along with Asshur, the youngest son of Leah's handmaid (Zilphy). Dan, as the oldest, was placed in command. Copyright by Ancient Bible History - Eden Games Inc.  Text: Matthew 23:24 "Ye blind guides, which strain at a gnat and swallow a camel. "
As far back as the 1700's (and perhaps earlier), translators have known that this verse, in the KJV version, contains a typographical error. When it was finally discovered, the mistake was never corrected. It still appears in reprints. The more accurate translation of this verse should be "strain out a gnat" instead of strain at a gnat. There are two indications why this is so. 1. The Greek word for strain "diulizo¯ means to filter out, which when applied to this verse makes the meaning more clean than filter at. 2. Printed versions of the Bible before 1611 --such as Tyndale's (1539), the Bishop's Bible (1568), the Geneva Bible (1557), and Erasmus' English and Latin Translations (1557)-- the word "out" is used instead of "at". Still, there are those who would argue that there was no copy error. The change was deliberate because an acceptable translation of the Greek can be "strain out the wine "at" the appearance of a gnat". Except, this translation doesn't quite agree with the historical aspects of wine straining that was common at the time this text was written. In first century Palestine, the camel was the largest animal that most folks had knowledge of, and the gnat was the smallest. According to the Jewish ceremonial law, both the camel and the gnat were unclean foods and it was forbidden to eat either. To do so was to become apostate. The punishment for such a sin was 39 lashes. Not only Jews, but many Oriental peoples made a habit of straining their wine before drinking it so as to get rid of the disease-carrying insects that laid their eggs in the sediment of sour wine. Containers of wine were often left open or partially open for easy access, much like a community drinking water barrel with dipper. These open vats attracted insects, especially stinging insects like mosquitos. Wine, as it aged, was diluted with more and more plain water so as to make it palatable to drink. But most water in ancient times was bad and rarely drank on its own. So while the water sweetened the wine, and the wine's alcoholic content purified the water, both needed to be strained of nesting insects and debris. Thus for reasons of health and the dictates of their law, the Jews were meticulous in straining their wine before drinking. From Dean Richard Trench (Archbishop of Westminster Abby, 1872-1886). He received a letter from a friend traveling in North Africa. It contained this account: “In a ride from Tangier to Tetuan, I observed that a Moorish soldier who accompanied me, when he drank, always unfolded the end of his turban and placed it over the mouth of his bota, drinking through the muslin to strain out the gnats, whose larvae swarm in the water of that country.” Evidence that wine straining was a common practice in the Roman world was offered in a report by the 18th century archaeologist, Johann Winckelmann. "In the ruins of Herculaneum, an elaborate tool was discovered for ancient wine straining. Made of well-crafted white metal, it consisted of two round and deep plates about four inches in diameter with flat handles. The plates and handles fit together so perfectly that they appeared to be one whole vessel type unit. The upper plate was perforated so that the wine passed through the holes with the good beverage going to the bottom for later pouring and the dregs and bugs being caught on the upper plate." The action taking place in this verse was the circumstance of Jesus censuring the Pharisees for their elaborate judgments and precautions for many minor matters, but their carelessness of those that were important. The intent of this verse was not a discussion on ancient health practices or ceremonial dietary laws, but rather a figurative pronouncement and condemnation of how the Jewish teachers (guides) regarded sin. From Calment's Dictionary of the Holy Land / Gnat; 1823.) “You Jews take great pains to avoid offence in very small matters, superstitiously observing the smallest points of the law, like a man carefully straining out the animalcule from what he drinks, while you are at no pains to avoid great sins - hypocrisy, deceit, oppression, and lust - like a man who should swallow a (unclean) camel.” The Arabians have a similar proverb: “He eats an elephant, and is suffocated with a gnat.” He is troubled with little things, but pays no attention to great matters. Copyright by Ancient Bible History - Eden Games Inc.  Ancient woman wearing caul. Text: Isiah 3:18 "In that day the Lord will take away the bravery of their tinkling ornaments about their feet, and their cauls, and their round tires like the moon." CAULS In Hebrew, the word for Cauls is "Shabiys". It is a seldom-used word and means to "interweave" as in netting. Or in this case, a hairnet. The Septuagint explains it as a net-works or caps of net-works worn on the head. But a Caul was no ordinary hairnet. Since ancient times, hair nets have been a popular fashion accessory for women. Egyptian and Assyrian monuments show figures of women with ornamented netting draped over the head. Some of these early hairnets have been recovered and are displayed in museums where they are marveled over for the beauty and intricacy. And what does an ancient hairnet look like? A caul was a woven strap or girdle, about four inches long, and placed on top of the head so that it extended from ear to ear and rested on the brow. It may or may not have more netting attached that enclosed or held up the hair itself. Engravings show both. From Rev. Joseph Roberts: (Description of a Caul that he viewed.) "It was made of gold and with many joints (in the netting) and it contained 45 rubies and 9 pearls all knotted into the netting. (Oriental Illustrations of the Sacred Scriptures" (London 1844.) So why is the caul of particular interest? Along the edge of a caul, numerous spangles, balls or small sun-like shapes of hammered metal were attached by threads or ribbons and allowed to dangle down over the eyes. Sometimes coins were also attached. As a woman moved, the ornaments of her caul caught the sunlight, glistened and tinkled. 1 Peter 3 indicates that caul wearing was still in practice in the first century AD. However, by that time, the sun symbols, jewels and other ornaments were also being braided down the length of the hair itself.  Ornaments attached to the tires draped around the necks or across the foreheads of camels. TIRES In Hebrew, the word for tires is "saharon" and means a round pendent that is shaped like a crescent or half-moon and hung about the neck. In ancient times, tires were made of gold or silver and fastened around the neck by means of a ribbon, strap, or thinly crafted metal. While only women wore cauls, both men and women wore tires. Camels also wore tires. A poor person might have a single tire draping down between the breasts, but wealthy women were known for wearing elaborate tires that covered most of their chests. Sometimes, several tires were worn at once. So what do ancient tires look like? These moon-shaped ornaments could be plain metal or highly decorated with precious stones. Some contained inscriptions or engravings that gave an indication as to their purpose. Such a practice was especially common to the later Arabs, What was the purpose of cauls and tires? A number of meanings were associated with the wearing of the cauls and tires depending on the culture and the era a caul might be worn to show wealth, as an indication of one's position in society or away to call attention to or enhance one's beauty. Later Arabs used cauls and tires to prevent the "evil eye". Camels draped with tires were thought to keep the caravan safe during travel or trade. The continual tinkling noise of the moon-shaped ornaments was believed to ward off evil spirits. However, discs and crescents were also well-recognized symbols of the popular sun and moon cults. And these cults were especially appealing to the vain. By New Testament times, the wearing of Cauls and Tires, with their representations of the sun and moon, had become a common and accepted way to show one's spiritual leanings or allegiance to the worship of these heavenly bodies. *The introductory text is rich with symbolism and descriptive contrast. Usually, Isaiah did not delve into minute particulars of a subject; this case being women’s adornment. But in his third chapter, he stepped out of character. With great determination of meaning, he specifically listed those ornament that were considered vulgar public displays of wealth, status, glory and idolatry to describe Jerusalem and Judah in the time of Uzziah-Jotham. In words understandable to his audience, Isaiah is saying that God's holy people have degenerated into a vain, self-serving, haughty, high-minded, proud, self-centered, self-flattering and idolatrous people. They have ceased to love God. They love themselves more. The point of Isaiah's address (Chapter 3) is ) God's universal judgment against those who are self-absorbed and practice false glory. *From Commentarius de vestitu mulierum Hebraearum ad Jes. Isa.3:16-24, Ludg. ' Batav 1745 (a quarto volume), and in that of Ant. Theod. Hartmann, consisting of three octavo volumes, and entitled Die Hebräerin am Putztische und als Braut (The Jewess at the Toilet-table, and as Bride, 1809-10). Copyright by Ancient Bible History - Eden Games Inc.  Roman Public Toilets at Ostia, Italy. Second Century AD. Text: 2 Kings 9:27 "And they brake down the image of Baal, and brake down the house of Baal, and made it a draught house unto this day."
The archaic Hebrew word for Draught House is "macharaoth". It is plural and means "latrine" or "privy". Even though the Masoretes (early Hebrew Scholars) preferred a less offensive word and substituted "sinks" in their translation, the meaning is still the same. A draught house was a multi-person public toilet. When it comes to archaeology, one never knows what one will dig up. Research on ancient restrooms has revealed that the earliest known comfort spots were spontaneous, such as in caves or behind rocks or a bush. This is probably what the Children of Israel used while making their wilderness journey. Later, after settlement, people began to construct actual facilities for this necessity. Public latrines have been excavated in many areas of the ancient world. In the middle east, the most common early restroom consisted of a simple building enclosing a row of stone slabs that had holes carved into them. The stone slabs were positioned over a ditch or drain that contained running water and allowed the waste to flow out of the building. The first Biblical mention of a public restroom is the draught house of 2 Kings 9:27. However, Ezra 6:11 and Dan 2:5 allude to something similar. In these verses, the term "dunghill" is also translated as "sink". meaning a human restroom. In these two verse, the dunghill is associated with something utterly detestable. Among the ancient Oriental cultures, any curse and its associated action that had anything to do with dung was considered to be an insult of the highest form. It called for utter humiliation and total degradation. From Sir John Chardin: "The eastern people are more exquisite in taking vengeance than those in the west. An example of such is that when Abbas the Great, King of Persia, having conquered Bagdad, treated the tomb of Hanifah, one of the fathers of the church among the Turks, as a draught house. ("Hewlett's Commentary and Annotations on the Holy Scriptures", Vol 2. Published 1816.) The introductory text tells that one of the first official acts of King Jehu, after coming to the throne, was to utterly defile and destroy Baal. Thus, he committed three insulting acts: 1. Tore down the statue of Ball. 2. Tore down the temple of Baal. 3. And used the rubble as a draught house (meaning that the Israelites defecated on it.) When finished, everything associated with Baal and his worship and been reduced to unclean and contemptuous. Copyright by Ancient Bible History - Eden Games Inc.  Egyptian man carving on a white stone. This blog updated 5/2023 TEXT: Rev. 2: 17: "To him that overcometh will I and I will give him…a white stone and a new name written, which no man knows except him that receives it." Much speculation has been given concerning the meaning of the white stone that is mentioned in Revelation. One thought is that a tessera, which is Latin for ticket or token, is being described. The word tessera has numerous definitions: 1.) small cubes or engraved dies used in ancient game playing; 2.) small pieces of marble, pebbles, glass, or precious stones used to make mosaics; 3.) a Greek or Roman token that was exchanged for gifts or goods; or 4. ) a small piece of wood or bone used as an ancient ticket. While it is possible that a tessera may have been a white stone, a white stone wasn't necessarily a tessera. Instead, a white stone had its own unique uses in the ancient world, which is depicted in early Greek and Roman literature. 1. A White Stone used for Judgement of Guilt or Innocence: From Ovid (A.D. 8): "A custom was of old, and still remains, Which life or death by suffrages ordains: White stones and black within an urn are cast, The first absolve, but fate is in the last." ("Metamorphoses," Lib XV, verse 41. Translated by John Dryden, 1717.) From Rev. John Potter: "The most ancient way of giving sentence was by black and white seashells (beads). Ovid has taken notice of this custom, "Black and white Stones were used in ages past, these to acquit the Prisoner, those to cast." ("Antiquities of Greece", Vol.1, p. 119. Published 1722, London.) From Thomas Wilson: "The ancients used stones to calculate and vote with by casting them in an urn. In criminal processes, a white stone implied acquittal and a black one condemnation; the Greek theta was sometimes engraved upon the latter and implied death.' ("The Cottage Bible", Vol. 2., p. 1388. Published 1848, Hartford.) 2. A White Stone as a Decision Maker: From Pliny: "But such is the folly of mortal men, that they are very ingenious in deceiving themselves: so that they reckon after the custom of the Thracians, who, by stones marked with different colours, which they cast into an urn (and) institute the trial of every day; and at their last day (meaning: end of day) they separate these stones one from another and count them: and thus give judgment concerning each one. But what if the day, flattered with a white stone, have in it the beginning of some misfortune? ("Pliny's Natural History in Thirty-Seven Books" , Book 7, Chapter 40, pp. 225-226. Translated by Dr. Philomen Holland, ed 1601. Published 1848, London.) From Rev. John and William Langhorne : "When he (Pericles) found the Athenians murmured at the time spent in the blockade, and that it was difficult to restrain them from the assault, he divided the army into eight parts, and ordered them to draw lots. That division which drew a white bean (pebble or bead) was to enjoy themselves in ease and pleasure while the other fought. Hence it is said that those who spend the day in feasting and merriment call that a white day from the white bean." ("Plutarch's lives", p,21. Published New York, 1889.) 3. A White Stone as an Honor From Plutarch: "Following the Olympic Games, winners arriving back in their native cities were given a parade of honor and a huge victory celebration, at which time each champion was presented with a white stone that bore his name. Possessing such a stone entitled him to be maintained at the public's expense for the rest of his life." ("Plutarch: Life of Pericles", 64. Paraphrase of the Greek translation.) From Thomas Wilson: "White stones are also said to have been given to the victors in the Olympic games with their names or (initials) engraved on them. When persons were raised to a new honour, it was customary to confer (to them) a new name." ("The Cottage Bible", Vol. 2., p. 1388. Published1848, Hartford.)  'Desert Nomads" by Giulio Rosati (1858-1917) Public domain. 4. A White Stone as an Ancient Passport:
The Latin expression “tesserae hospitals” (hospitality tablets) comes from the small piece of stone, wood, bone, or ivory that was divided into two equal parts by two parties wishing to make an agreement or covenant of friendship. Each party took one half of the white stone and wrote their own name on it. Then the two pieces were exchanged. Later, when either party made a journey that took them into the other’s territory, upon arriving at the border, the half of white stone with the other person's name on it would be presented to the watchman. Immediately, the visiting party would be given the best hospitality and a safe passage. From Palutus: HANNO: "If it be so, compare, if thou pleasest, the hospitable tessera; here it is, I have brought it with me." AGORASTOCLES: "Come then, reach it hither: it is the exact counterpart; I have the other at home." ("Poneulus", written by Plautus (c. 254–184 BC). From Act V, Scene 2, Verse 80. From Rev. Samuel Burder : "Travelling in the greater part of Greece, seems to have been, anciently, at least, as difficult as it is at the present day: and that circumstance gave rise to the laws of hospitality. This reciprocal hospitality became hereditary in families; and the friendship which was thus contracted was not less binding than the ties of affinity or of blood. Those between whom a regard had been cemented by the intercourse of hospitality, were provided with some particular mark, which, being handed down from father to son, established a friendship and alliance between families for several generations. The Greek mark and the tessera hospitalis of the Latins were cut in halves, one-half was kept by the host and the other by the person whom he had entertained. On subsequent occasions, they or their descendants, by whom the symbol was recognized, gave or received hospitality on comparing the two tallies. The ancient Romans divided a tessera lengthwise into two equal parts as signs of hospitality, upon each of which one of the parties wrote his name and interchanged it with the other. The production of this when they traveled gave a mutual claim to the contracting parties and their descendants for reception and kind treatment at each other's houses, as occasion offered. These tesserae were…carefully and privately kept so that no one might claim the privileges of them beside the person for who they were intended." ("Oriental Literature Applied to the Illustration of the Sacred Scriptures", Vol. 2, p.486 . Published 1822, London.) The action taking place in the introductory verse is Jesus promising that he will give to the overcomer a white stone, which symbolically meant a decisive vote in one’s favor, a reprieve from death, a final judgment of innocence, a covenant of safe passage, welcome, honor, and the promise of God's eternal hospitality. Copyright by Ancient Bible History - Eden Games Inc.  Lazarus begging while dogs lick his sores. Text: Luke 16:20-25
"And it came to pass that the beggar died and was carried by the angels into Abraham's bosom: the rich man also died and was buried. And in hell, he lifted up his eyes, being in torments, and seeth Abrham afar off, and Lazarus in his bosom." There has been much debate as to whether Christ's parables were literal, symbolic, truth based in fiction, pure invention or something else entirely. The parable of the "Rich Man and Lazarus" has created much controversy as to its meaning. While it seems a bit unreal, it is actually drawn from daily Jewish life. And to the first century Jewish listener, it made perfect sense. Around the second century BC, idioms* crept into Jewish language and became accepted an excepted manner of speech.The Rich Man and Lazarus contains several great examples of Jewish idioms, the most vivid and descriptive being "Abraham's Bosom". By the first century AD, the Jews had adopted the Roman custom of dinning while reclining on couches. Guests at a feast leaned themselves on one elbow while resting the back of their head against the chest of the guest behind them. And a guest who rested their head against the host's bosom dined in the place of honor. The Jews called this dinning position "resting in the "Bosom of Abraham". The phrase reminded them of their belief that someday, at the final reward, they would all feast in honor with their father Abraham. At some point, the idiom "Abraham's Bosom" became synonymous with "heaven", the place of final reward, the place of the eternal feast. Jewish Pharisees differed with Christ on several major points concerning life and death. It was their belief that father Abraham had gone directly to heaven at the moment of his death, where upon arrival, 'he" had sat down on the right hand of God. From then on, in order for any soul to get into heaven, that soul must seek the approval of Abraham. Only on Abraham's recommendation could a soul enter paradise. Then, when the dead saint did arrive at the Pearl Gates, Abraham came to meet them and clasped them soundly to his chest. Each new arrival was welcomed into Abraham's Bosom...welcomed into Paradise, welcomed to the place of final reward, welcomed to the great eternal feast. The Jewish Talmud says that the most common interpretation of the Abraham's Bosom Idiom is "Paradise". The introductory text is a quote of Jesus' words to a Jewish audience. In this instance, He is giving both a description of and making a contrast between Heaven and Hell in terms that His listeners understood. See also Matt. 8:11 and Luke 14:15. *[An idiom is an expression in a language that has a unique meaning, and that meaning cannot be understood from the meaning of any of the other words in the expression. (such as "raining cats and dogs".) ] Copyright by Ancient Bible History - Eden Games Inc. |
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