 Palestine women making cheese. (National Geographic March 1914.) 1 Samuel 17:18 "Carry these ten cheeses unto the captain of their thousand, and look how thy brethren fare, and take their pledge."(KJV)
The ancient world had a custom for nearly every occasion. When it came to identity and intent, formalities were carefully observed because the ancients were often suspicions of each other’s motives. This verse is an interesting example of such. In this passage, Jesse’s older sons are encamped with Saul’s army at Gibeah and the young David is being sent to inquire of their well-being. So that David might be welcomed into the camp and be able to visit with his brothers, Jesse sends a gift of ten cheeses to their chiliarch, the captain in charge of a 1000 men. Cheese was a generous and welcome gift (ancient armies foraged for their food). Such an appropriate gift would demonstrate David’s (Jesse’s) peaceful and friendly intentions of only seeking information. Cheese is a very ancient food. It is believed to have originated about 3000 BC, the approximate time that sheep and goats were being domesticated in Egypt and Sumer. In those hot climates, cheese was the only form in which milk could be stored for any length of time. Cheese was a favorite food item, and the desire for it quickly spread throughout the Arab world. Cheese became a valuable trade item. To make cheese, the ancients stored milk in containers made from animal skins and inflated internal organs. There it was allowed to sour and turn into curds and whey. The curd part was then strongly salted and pressed into cakes. At first the cakes were soft, but in the hot climate, they quickly dried and became hard, crumbling when sliced. The texture of these cheese cakes was similar to the feta cheese of today. From John Lewis Burkhart : "It may be observed that cheese is not at the present day (1831) common among the Bedouin Arabs, butter being decidedly preferred. But there is a substance closely corresponding to those mentioned in 1 Samuel 17(18) and 2 Samuel 17(29) consisting of coagulated buttermilk, which is dried until it becomes quite hard and is then ground. The Arabs eat it (mixed) with butter." (From Notes on the Bedouins and Wahabys, Vol.1, p. 59-60. Published in London, 1831.) Again, the second half of this verse also shows the same suspicious nature, even among family members to each other. The phrase “take their pledge” is Jesse demanding David bring a personal item or object belonging to each brother that would assure Jesse that each still live and had not fallen in battle. Pledges were something that the receiver could easily recognize as honest proof that fulfilled the inquiry or request. Pledges came in many forms. From Rev. John Roberts: "Among the Hindus, a person in a distant country will send to those who are interested in his welfare a ring, a lock of hair, or a piece of his nail, as a 'pledge' of his health and prosperity. ("Oriental Illustrations of the Sacred Scriptures", p.169. Published in London, 1844.) There are also some notations that give spoils taken in battle as a Pledge. Such booty might be sent home to a wife and children, not only to assure that the husband and father still lived, but to maintain the family living while he was away at war. Copyright by Ancient Bible History - Eden Games Inc.
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 Erect Egyptian Idols. From the British Museum. Text: Jeremiah 10:3-4 "For one cutteth a tree out of the forest, the work of the hands of the workman, with the axe. They deck it with silver and with gold; they fasten it with nails and with hammers that it move not. (KJV)
In Hebrew, the word for tree is ates and means a living tree that is firm and of a suitable quality for carving. Ates comes from the primitive Hebrew root word atsah, and it means to fasten or make firm, as in to close or shut the eyes. In this verse, the tree carving being described is the ancient art of making personal or household gods (idols) out of wood. Trees in the ancient Middle East were short and scrubby. An entire tree stock might be used to produce a god. From Pliny: In those days (earliest days) all images were of wood. In Italy, down to the conquest of Western Asia in the first half of the second century B.C., most of the images of the gods are said to have been of wood or earthenware (clay). (Natural History, Book XXXIV. 34.) From Rev. George Bush: "Before the art of carving was carried to perfection, the ancients made their images all of a thickness, straight, having their hands hanging down and close to their sides, the legs joined together, the eyes shut with a very perpendicular attitude, and not unlike the body of a palm tree; such are the figures of those antique Egyptian statues that still remain." ( Illustrations of the Holy Scriptures, p. 493. Published in London, 1850.) From Sir John Gardner Wilkinson: "Long after men had attempted to make out the parts of the figure, statues continued to be very rude; the arms were placed directly down the side to the thighs, and the legs were united together, nor did they pass beyond the imperfect state in Greece until the age of Daedalus (Greek Mythology)." (Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, Vol.3 p. 273; Published 1847.) Idol trees were chosen according to their durability and longevity. From John Gill : (Concerning Isaiah 40:20 - "He chooseth a tree that will not rot.") "He goes to the forest, and chooses the best tree for his purpose he can find, even one that will not rot, as the cypress; and though he cannot get an idol made of metal, but is forced to have one of wood, yet he will get the best he can, that will last longest, an incorruptible deity, as he fancies: ." (Exposition of the Old Testament; Published 1748-1763.) Once a tree was obtained, the workman cut, stripped and cleaned the wood in preparation for it to become a life-sized carving. Any deity's likeness might be chosen, but there is reliable evidence that these idols were given human forms and oftentimes bore the features of the new owner or even the workman himself. After the carving was completed, the tree idol was decorated according to the wealth and social standing of the new owner. Some gods were merely stained or painted with crude dyes, while others were covered with hand beaten sheets of silver or gold. If the owner was extremely rich, the idol might have loops of silver and gold attached to it, or be embedded with precious gems. Once finished, the tree idol could not stand on its own. It had to be nailed to a wooden base, a wall, a post or some other such brace. Where it was then located where all could admire it. From Jean Baptiste Tavernier: The idolaters of India have, both in the towns and country parts, a great number of temples, large as well as small, which they call pagodas, where they go to pray to their gods and make offerings ; but many of the poor people who dwell in the forests and mountains, far removed from villages, take a stone, and rudely trace a nose and eyes with yellow or red color upon it, and all the family then worship it. (Travels in India, Volume 2, p. 262; Published 1676. ) (1889 Translation from French.) From J.G. Wilkinson: " In the early stages of society when gold first began to be used, idols, ornaments, or other objects, were made of the metal in its pure state, till being found too soft, and too easily worn away, an alloy was added to harden it, at the same time that it increased the bulk of the valuable material. As men advanced in experience, they found that the great ductility of gold enabled them to cover substances of all kinds with thin plates of the metal, giving all the effect of the richness and brilliancy they admired in solid gold ornaments; and the gilding of bronze. ("The Ancient Egyptians", p. 234; Published 1837. Some Biblical scholars believe that the introductory verses, besides their intended spiritual meaning, may also be an historical reference to the use of scarecrows. Mention of scarecrows can also be found in the apocrypha and the LXX. From the Epistle of Jeremiah 1:70-72: " So we have no evidence whatever that they are gods; therefore do not fear them. Like a scarecrow in a cucumber bed, that guards nothing, so are their gods of wood, overlaid with gold and silver. In the same way, their gods of wood, overlaid with gold and silver, and like a thorn bush in a garden, on which every bird sits; or like a dead body cast out in the darkness. By the purple and linen that rot upon them you will know that they are not gods…." (Apocrypha/Baruch 6 – Approximately 300BC-100BC.) One misconception of note concerning the introductory text is that this verse is describing the earliest use of a Christmas Tree and the censure of such a practice. There is absolutely no historical basis for this assumption. The best explanation for this verse comes from the companion verses found in Isaiah 40:18-20 (KJV). "To whom then will ye liken God? Or what likeness will ye compare unto him? The workman melteth a graven image, and the goldsmith spreadeth it over with gold, and casteth silver chains. He that is so impoverished that he hath no oblation chooseth a tree that will not rot; he seeketh unto him a cunning workman to prepare a graven image, that shall not be moved. " This passage is God's condemnation against the making and worshiping of false gods or idols. Copyright by Ancient Bible History - Eden Games Inc.  Robe draped about shoulders with the "lap" showing. (Man in red.) Nehemiah 5:13 "Also I shook my lap, and said, 'So God shake out every man from his house, and from his labor, that performeth not this promise, even thus be shaken out, and emptied.'"
There are three Hebrew word for "lap. Chotsen: Arm or lap, as to hold firmly the bosom. Beged: A garment or clothing, also pillage Choq: Enclose the bosom. In the ancient world, the lap was not the topside of the upper legs in a sitting position but rather a type of large pocket, which was created by folding the excess material of the front of the cloak into a deep pouch before draping it to the shoulder and securing it there. This pocket was always positioned near the breast and it could be opened and emptied without loosening it from the shoulder. From Thomas Shaw: It is very probable, likewise, that the loose fitting garment, the toga of the Romans, was of this kind. For, if the drapery of their statues is to instruct us, this is actually no other than the dress of the Arabs, when they appear in their hykes. The plaid of the Highlanders in Scotland, is the very same. Instead of the fibula, that was used by the Romans, the Arabs join together with thread, or with a wooden bodkin, the two upper corners of their garment; and after having place them first over one of their shoulders, they then fold the rest of it about their bodies." (Travels in Barbary and the Levant, Vol. 1, pages 403, 40. Published 1757.) It was in the lap pouch that the ancients carried their most personal and valued possessions. Such items might include medicinal herbs, loaves of bread, corn and coin pouches. c. (See 2 Kings 4:39). Some ancients never removed their treasures from the lap pocket, choosing instead to keep them on their person at all times. The lap pocket was associated with various curses. From Joseph Roberts: "When men or women curse each other, they shake the lap, their cloth, or robe, and say, "It shall be so with thee." Does [If] a man begins to shake his sali or waistcloth, in the presence of another, the other will say, "Why do you shake your cloth here? Go to some other place. What! Can you [cannot] shake your lap here? Do it not, do it not." [Later] "Yes, yes ; it is all true enough ; this misery has come upon me through that wretched man shaking his cloth in my presence." And... "The natives of India made a practice of carrying a pouch made from cocoa leaves in the lap pocket. Whether it was a real bag or simply that the lap pocket was lined with these leaves is hard to determine. But inside this so-called leaf pouch, the people placed items of value such as money, areca nut, betel leaf and tobacco. The idea was to keep something valuable in the lap pocket at all times. If the lap pocket should ever become empty the natives believed that the curse of destitution would come upon them. They also believed that once empty, the lap pocket would never refill and they would be poor forever. And… "If he cannot soon find the article he requires, he shakes out the whole : not so the Hindoo ; he will fumble and grope for an hour, rather than shake out the whole. " Do that! Why who knows how long the pouch would remain empty?" (Oriental Illustrations of the Sacred Scriptures, p. 253-254. Published1835.) As curses go, few curses in the ancient world were as strongly believed in or as fearfully dreaded as the lap-shaking curse. To invoke this curse, the lap pocket was un-tucked, turned inside out and the excess fabric angrily shaken out in front of the person being cursed. Such a gesture called for the complete destruction and total annihilation of that person, his wealth and all that belonged to him. From Appian's History of Rome - The Spanish Wars: "The Romans now sent ambassadors to Carthage to demand that Hannibal should be delivered up to them as a violator of the treaty unless they wished to assume the responsibility. If they would not give him up, war was to be declared forthwith. The ambassadors obeyed their instructions, and when the Carthaginians refused to give up Hannibal they declared war. It is said that it was done in the following manner. The chief of the embassy, pointing to the fold of his toga and smiling, said: "Here, Carthaginians, I bring you peace or war, you may take whichever you choose." The latter replied: "You may give us whichever you like." When the Romans offered war they all cried out: "We accept it." (Book VI Section III Number 13 [218]) In the introductory text, Nehemiah used a cultural practice, which his audience would understood perfectly the meaning, to represent what would happen to them if they reneged on their promise of restitution.. God to punish them according to the lap-shaking curse. Copyright by Ancient Bible History - Eden Games Inc.  Bronze key that was either used for a door or a box Probably Roman and dating from 50 BC- 1200 AD. Photo used by permission of the British Museum. Isaiah 22:22 "The key of the house of David will I lay upon his shoulder; so he shall open, and none shall shut; and he shall shut, and none open." (KJV)
In the ancient world, keys were heavy… both literally and symbolically. An ordinary key might be as small as six inches or as large as two feet long. Most were made of wood, although, archaeologist have found keys in Egypt made of iron and bronze, and figures of such are frequently found on monument. Assyrian locks and keys, large and made out of wood, have also been found. In appearance, the keys resembled the skeleton keys of the 1500-1700's, except that they were bent at an odd angle at the pin end. The pins, sometimes called pegs or nails, were inserted into a hollow bolt (lock), which d released other pins, which allowed the bolt to be drawn back. Many keys had ornamented handles made of brass or silver filigree, oftentimes with hooks or rings attached. From Robert Lowth D.D.: Without entering into a long disquisition, and a great deal of obscure learning, concerning the locks and keys of the ancients, it will be sufficient to observe that one sort of key, and that probably the most ancient, was of considerable magnitude; and as to shape very much bent and crooked. Aratus, to give his reader an idea of the form of the constellation, Cassiopeia, compared it to a Key. It must be owned that the passage is very obscure, but the learned (Pierre Daniel) Huetius 1630-1721 has bestowed a great deal of pains in explaining it. As found in Manilii, lib. 1:355. ("Isaiah A New Translation", p. 127. Published in London,1778.) Homer, in his odyssey, (XXI. 6), describes the key of Ulysses’ storehouse as a large curvature and being in the shape of a reap-hook. (Translated by Eustathius, Bishop of Antioch, 320 AD) In ancient times, keys were either slung around the shoulders (Hebrew – shekem; meaning on the neck), or hung from the shoulder by way of a knotted kerchief. But why carry a key on the shoulder? Keys were a status symbol. A key on the shoulder meant that someone possessed something important enough and valuable enough to be locked up. Eastern merchants were known to make a lavish display of carrying their keys on their shoulders. A key on the shoulder might also indicate honor. Those chosen by the king to be the royal key bearer (treasury) held a high position in the court and were due great respect. But a key two feet long was difficult to carry and hard to work with. Records indicate that royal key bearers often had servants who walked in front of them, and it was the servants who actually carried the key. Judges 3:25: This text indicates that it may have taken more than one person to make these keys work. "And they tarried till they were ashamed: and, behold, he opened not the doors of the parlor; therefore they took a key, and opened them: and, behold, their lord was fallen down dead on the earth." From Joseph Roberts (1835),: "How much was I delighted when I first saw the people, especially the Moors, going along the streets with each his key on his shoulder. The handle is generally made of brass (though sometimes of silver), and is often nicely worked in a device of filigrane. The way it is carried is to have the corner of a kerchief tied to the ring; the key is then placed on the shoulder, and the kerchief hangs down in front. At other times they have a bunch of large keys, and then they have half on one side of the shoulder, and half on the other. For a man thus to march along with a large key on his shoulder, shows at once that he is a person of consequence. “Raman is in great favor with the Modeliar (headman or chief) for he now carries the key.” “Whose key have you got on your shoulder?” “I shall carry my key on my own shoulder.”’ - (Oriental illustrations of the Sacred Scripture*, P. 424. Published in London, 1835.) Key on the Shoulder is an ancient idiom that means "power" or "authority". The Key represents the authority (access) and the shoulder represents the power (permission) to enforce the authority: One who is allowed access is in control. In the opening text, Shebna, Hezekiah's treasurer, is warned that Eliakim shall carry "the keys of the house of David. Or more specifically, Eliakim is to replace Shebna as the treasurer. This is a figurative way of expressing what is said in the preceding verse (21): "I will commit thy government into his hand." The expression is partly figurative in that the hand is a symbol of power. Therefore, hand and keys together were symbolic of great power including wealth and authority. The idea contained in these passages is also expressed in Isaiah 9:6, where it is said of the Messiah that "the government shall be upon his shoulder." And again Matthew 16:19, when Christ says to Peter: "I will give unto thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven: and whatsoever thou shalt bind on the earth shall be bound in heaven; and whatsoever thus shalt loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven." Copyright by Ancient Bible History - Eden Games Inc.  Drawing of ancient man with hairline shaved back and rounded. Lev. 19:27 "Ye shall not round the corners of your heads, "
In ancient times, hair (besides being a natural covering for the head) was used symbolically in many ways. And many of those ways had to do with whether or not the hair was cut, how it was cut, or for what reason it was cut. Pieces of hair were used in the ancient divination; as elements of sacrifice, as a public statement of one's religion, to signify membership in a religious sect or cult, as a token or pledge, and as a sign of mourning, sorrow or degradation. From Maimonides: "…and so with others, it was usual for young men to consecrate their hair to idols…as such practices were used on account of the dead, as Aben Ezra observes." (37. Hilchot Obede Cochabim, c. 12. sect. 1.) From Homer: "Achilles, at the funeral of Patroclus, cut off his golden locks, which his father had dedicated to the river god Sperchius, and threw them into the flood." And, "In the midst of them, his comrades bore Patroclus and covered him with the locks of their hair, which they cut off and threw upon his body. " ("Iliad", Book 23, p.447. Orange Street Press edition, 1998.) From Rev. John Roberts: "Among the Hindoos (Hindus), a person in a distant country sends to those who are interested in his welfare a ring, a lock of hair or a piece of his nail as a "pledge" of his health and prosperity. ("Oriental Illustrations of the Sacred Scriptures"; Commentary on 1 Samuel 17:18. Published 1844.) From the King James Version: "And the Nazarite shall shave the head of his separation (end of his dedication or vow) at the door of the tabernacle of the congregation, and shall take the hair of the head of his separation, and put it in the fire which is under the sacrifice of the peace offerings." (Numbers 6:18.) The phrase "rounding the corners of the head" means literally "clipped on the temple" or to "round the border of the hair". The margin reads: "those who have the hair polled (sheared)". One of the ancient rituals involved in the adoration of heavenly bodies was to trim the hair in a bowl-like shape or to clip the beard so that it took on a rounded shape. How this particular practice came about is not exactly known except that some scholars think that the rounding may have been done to show honor or signify their allegiance age to the sun or the moon, both of which were round objects. From Robert Brown (Greek Literature scholar): "Herodotus further illustrates the solar character of Orotal. He describes the Arabians as saying that they follow or imitate their divinity in their mode of cutting the hair, which from his account, they appear to have cut or shaved in a circular form. In fact, they seem to have worn a kind of tonsure, a practice particularly forbidden to the priests of Israel, but followed by those of Uasar, a being who, according to Macrobius, is nothing else but the Sun. ("The Great Dionysiak Myth" , Volume 1, p.223. Published in London, 1877.) From Herodotus: "The Macians, a people of Libya, cut their hair round, so as to leave a tuft on the top of the head. In this manner, the Chinese cut their hair to the present day. This might have been in honor of some idol, and therefore forbidden to the Israelites. ("Historia", lib. iv., cap. p. 175.) There is a second and somewhat more obscure meaning to the "corners" part of this phrase, that of having a direct reference to "those who reside in heathen lands" or the outer corners of the known world. The reason for this thought is that the rounded hairstyle --with some variations-- was adopted by nearly all of those who practiced some form of idolatry, most of which lived remotely to the Israelites. (See Jeremiah 9:25, 26. Jeremiah 25;23. Jeremiah 49:32.) In this text, God is speaking to the Children of Israel and admonishing them not take on any outward personal appearance or display that would associate them with false gods. Copyright by Ancient Bible History - Eden Games Inc.  Ben Hasan Tomb Painting Psalms 23:4 "Thy rod and they staff, they comfort me." The symbolic phrase "rod and staff" appear six times in the King James Version of the Bible; and a seventh time in various others versions. In each instance, except for the introductory verse, the phrase is used to denote anger or a means of punishment. Only in Psalms 23:4 are the two items spoken of in the context of comfort. In ancient times, the rod and the staff were both the literal tools of an occupation and the symbolic emblems of an office. Literal Tools: Shepherds used wooden staffs and rods to guide, discipline and protect the sheep. Generally speaking, a staff was a long pole similar to the rod but with one end that was knobbed, crooked or forked. The type of staff a shepherd used depended on the geographic location or the environment in which he grazed his sheep. A crooked staff could pull a sheep back from an abrupt edge or rescue it from a fall between rocks. In a desert area , he could use a forked staff to catch up a poisonous snake and hold it securely while the beat it to death with his rod or dashed it against rocks. Symbolic Emblems: The rod (or scepter) and staff were a potentate's tangible representation of their right to rule and the extent of their authority. When performing official duties, the ruler carried -- or had a servant carry- the instruments of his (or her) position. The rod symbolized the ruler's authority to decree laws and pronounce judgment (punishments, give pardons or rewards) and to declare war and make peace. The staff symbolized the care and concern the ruler was to have over his/her subjects; that he would insure their protection from enemies, attend to their welfare, and guide them into prosperity. Together, the rod and staff were the emblems that represented supreme power. The rod and staff pre-date Abraham. In nearly every Middle Eastern culture there can be found an example of an ancient king or ruler holding a rod and a staff.
From Lewis Bayles Pation: "There is a famous fresco showing a caravan of Syrian merchants. In it, Neferhotep, the scribe, precedes the party, bearing in his hand an inscription stating that these are thirty-seven 'Amu (Asiatics) who bring stibium, the modern kohl or " eye-paint." He (Neferhotep) is followed by Khiti, the chief huntsman, who presents the foreigners to Prince Khumhotep (or Khnumhotep the servant of the Pharaoh – 2400 BC). Then comes the head man of the caravan, leading an ibex by a cord, and holding in his hand a boomerang or a staff of office. In front of him is written " Abishua, a chief of the desert." (The Early History Of Syria and Palestine, p.62. Published 1901.) In Psalms 23:4, David is expressing to God that he acknowledges God's right to rule; that God alone is the supreme power over all creation and that God alone has full authority to rule; and that God is the provider of protection, sustenance, and prosperity. This knowledge of God's supreme power is what gives David finds comfort. Copyright by Ancient Bible History - Eden Games Inc.  Egyptian Snake Standard Numbers 21:8-9 "And the LORD said unto Moses, Make thee a fiery serpent, and set it upon a pole: and it shall come to pass, that every one that is bitten, when he looketh upon it, shall live. And Moses made a serpent of brass, and put it upon a pole, and it came to pass, that if a serpent had bitten any man, when he beheld the serpent of brass, he lived. "
Israel's encounter with the fiery snake is a fascinating Biblical story that is told as an actual event and later takes on symbolic meaning. Out of fear and lack of faith, the Children of Israel believed they could not conquer Canaan, the land that God had promised to deliver to them. So God punished their unbelief by causing them to wander forty years in the wilderness. While on their way from Mount Hor to the Red Sea, Israel began to complain about what they believed were hardships in the wilderness; a plight they were responsible for. The people were angry with God, found fault with Moses and his leadership, and grumbled about the lack of food and water. They were especially tired of having only manna to eat, which they called a "light and worthless food". (From the translation, the expression "this very light food" conveys the idea of "this vile, contemptible bread".) God disciplined a rebellious Israel by sending a plague of fiery snakes into the camp. The snakes bit the people and many died. From Flavius Josephus: (Concerning Moses leading the Egyptian Army against Nubia.) "Moses took his army not by the river, but by land, where he gave a wonderful demonstration of his sagacity. For when the ground was difficult to be passed over, because of the multitude of serpents, which (the land) produced in vast numbers and are worse than others in power and an unusual fierceness of sight; (these snakes) could suddenly ascend out of the ground unseen, fly in the air, and attack men unawares. Moses invented a wonderful stratagem to preserve the army's safety. He made baskets, arks out of sedge, and filled them with Ibes (ibis), which he carried along. The Ibes are the greatest enemy to these serpents , for when the Ibes come near the snakes, and the snakes fly out, the Ibes catch them and devour them." ("Antiquities of the Jews Book II", Ch 10. par. 2, "How Moses Made War with the Ethiopians")(Passage edited and abbreviated for clarity.) From Strabo: Alexander on his journey through Gedrosia lost many men through the serpents which sprang upon those passing by from the sand and the brushwood. The bites of all the most poisonous snakes produce swell, burning inflammation and fever, which as the poison spreads through the blood, rapidly extends to the whole body and produces fatal results in a very short time." ("Geographica", xv, 723). A number of historians and travelers record encounters with fiery snakes in this part of the desert. From Dr. Gotthilf Von Schubert: "In the afternoon, they brought us a very mottled snake of a large size (and) marked with fiery red spots and wavy stripes, which belonged to the most poisonous species, as the formation of its teeth clearly showed. According to assertions of the Bedouins, these snakes, which they greatly dreaded, were very common in that neighborhood." ("Travels in the East", Vol. 2, p. 396 or p. 406. Published during 1836-1837.) According to scripture, after the snakes had invaded the camp, some of Israel acknowledged their sin and appealed to Moses to ask God for mercy. God's reply was a directive to Moses to craft a fiery snake out of brass (KKV) or bronze (other modern translations) and place it on a pole (ensign) in the midst of the camp. Those who were bitten were to look upon this "fiery brass snake" and if they did so, they were miraculously healed. Those who refused died. In Hebrew, the word for brass is necho^sheth and probably means copper. Brass [(as an alloy of copper and zinc) was not known till the thirteenth century) (Deuteronomy 8:9 )]. In the Bible, Necho^sheth was used for fetters (Judges 16:2 and 2 Kings 25:7), pieces of armor (1 Samuel 17:5-6), musical instruments (1 Chronicles 15:19 ;1 Corinthians 13:1) and for money (Matthew 10:9). From the International Standard Bible Commentary: "Punon was an Idumean village located in the desert north of Petra, between Petra and Zoar, at a distance of forty-eight miles from Mt. Hor. It was the Israelite 's second stop after Mt Hor (Num. 33:42), and was famous for brass mines. (Eusebius - Onom 299 85; 123 9). Jerome recorded, that in his time, Punon was a little village from whence brass metal was dug by criminals condemned to the mines." From Samuel Sharpe: "A monument showing an Egyptian Standard, having a crowned asp on the top: This was the Serpent of Goodness, and was distinguished from the Serpent of Evil. Such standards, with a variety of animals and other ornaments, were carried by the Egyptians in their sacred procession. The serpent made by Moses may have been like this. One (standard) under the name of Moses Serpent, was long kept in Jerusalem, until King Hezekiah broke it to pieces to stop the idolatrous burning of incense to it. ( 2Ki 18:4: ) (Texts From the Holy Bible Explained by the Help of the Ancient Monuments, p. 27. Published in London, 1869.) In scripture: 1. Copper or brass is often used as a symbol of insensibility and obstinacy in sin (Isaiah 48:4 ; Jeremiah 6:28 ; Ezekiel 22:18 ); and of strength (Psalms 107:16 ; Micah 4:13). 2. Bronze is symbolic of judgement. 3. The Serpent or snake is symbolic for sin (also cunning and deceit). According to Bible symbolism, placing the bronze snake on the pole represented Sin being lifted up in judgment – or a judgement against sin. The act of looking at the fiery snake caused the people to recognize their sin against God, His judgement against their sin, and a means to redeem themselves through faith. Later, the brass serpent became a symbolic illustration for Christ being lifted up on the cross, His final act that afforded mankind salvation from sin. Copyright by Ancient Bible History - Eden Games Inc.  "Christ's Entry into Jerusalem" by Hippolyte Flandrin (1842) Judges 5:10 "Speak, ye that ride on white asses, ye that sit in judgment, and walk by the way."
This verse, found in "The song of Deborah and Barak" is difficult to translate because it contains Hebrew words the have dropped out of use. However, scholars have come up with two different thoughts as to the overall meaning and the understanding of individual phrases of this verse. The phrase: "Ye that ride on white asses", one translation suggests that the "white" was actually a richly woven tapestry thrown over the back of an ass or any riding animal; while the second translation understands it to be literally the color of the animal. The phrase: "Ye that sit in judgment". This can mean literally "men of the law who are chosen to judge the common" people, or an indication of the manner in which one is riding --an erect posture. The phrase: "Walk by the way". Most agree that this means the common person. However, there is also the thought that this might mean those who travel from place to place. (Judges 5:10) . The Vulgate translates the phrase as "shinning asses", meaning a sleek or well-fed animal. From Young's Literal Translation of the Bible: "Riders on white asses--Sitters on a long robe--And walkers by the way--meditate!" In Ancient Persia, men of the law were allowed the privilege of riding white asses, thus showing their elevated place in society. The whiteness of the ass was an indication of their sterling character, which was the standard for their obtaining such a coveted position. From Lady Isabel Burton: "My husband always gives me the entire command of the stable. I bought a camel (and) a snow-white donkey, which is the most honourable mount for grand visiting. ("The Inner Life of Syria, Palestine, and the Holy Land" (from my private Journal) Volume 1, p. 136. Published in London, 1876.) From James Morier: "The Mollahs, or men of the law, are generally to be seen riding about on mules, and they do account it a dignity, and suited to their character, to ride on white asses." ("Second Journey through Persia, Armenia and Asia Minor", p.136. Published 1818.) In the ancient world, men of wealth and influence were easily recognized by their choice of mounts and the manner in which they rode. Since white donkeys were rare and costly (imported mainly from Arabia) and tapestries made the finest of seats, then it stands to reason that only the very rich or very important could afford to ride on a "white ass". From a historical perspective, it is interesting to note that three different ranks of society of Israel are being mentioned: the rich, the magistrates, and the common man. The action taking place in this verse is Deborah and Barak exhorting all the people of Israel to rejoice in the defeat of Jabin, the Canaanite king, to spread the word of this victory among all Israel, and to extoll the goodness and blessings of God. Copyright by Ancient Bible History - Eden Games Inc.  Seashore at Sidon. Locals engage in grieving ceremony. Text: Psalms 56:8 "Thou tellest my wanderings: put thou my tears into thy bottle: are they not in the book?"
The Biblical phrase, "put thou tears into a bottle", is thought be a reference to lachrymatories or tear bottles that were an important part of the burial ceremony among the ancients. Such bottles were used to collect and preserve the tears of those who mourned. Also, records were often kept so as to remember or verify who actually came, participated and contributed in this grieving ritual. From James Morier: "In some of the mournful assemblies, it is the custom for a priest to go about to each person, at the height of their grief, and with a swab (cloth or cotton wad) in hand, carefully collect the falling tears and then squeeze the liquid into the bottle. These tears are preserved, and sometimes recorded, with the greatest of care. Some Persians believe that in the agony of death, when all medicines have failed, a drop of tears so collected and put into the mouth of a dying person will revive them. Thus the reason for collecting and bottling tears. ("Second Journey through Persia", p. 179: Published 1818.) The Greeks and Roman also performed this funeral ritual. Some scholars believe that Tacitus was referring to the tear-collecting when he said: "At my funeral let no tokens of sorrow be seen, no pompous mockery of woe. “ Modern archaeologists have found a number of these tear bottles in ancient tombs. They are made from a variety of materials that include glass, pottery, agate, sardonyx, sometimes skin and occasionally crude baked clay. Most are broad at the bottom with long slender necks and funnel-shaped mouths From Johannes Van Cotovicus: “The grave of M. Tullius Cicero was dug up in the island of Zacynthus, A. D. 1544, in which were found two glass urns; the larger had ashes in it, the lesser water: the one was supposed to contain his ashes, the other the tears of his friends: and as this was a custom with the Romans.” (Itinerarium Hiersolymitanum et Syriacum. Published1596) There is less evidence that the Jews collected tears. However, there is a saying in their language that indicates is they had a knowledge or some relationship to the practice. The translated Hebrew phrase "tears into thy bottle" refers to "crying" and a "skin bottle". The introductory text is symbolic. Here, David is reminding God that He has been a witness to David's exile (wanderings), that David is grief stricken (tears in bottle) over that exile, and that his grief is verifiable and real (book). Copyright by Ancient Bible History - Eden Games Inc.  Egyptian Princess in her Bath Wall painting in tomb in Thebes. Text: 2 Samuel 11:2
"It came to pass in an eventide, that David arose from off his bed, and walked upon the roof of the king's house: and from the roof he saw a woman washing herself." The act of bathing is one of mankind's oldest behaviors that was performed out of a need to be clean and for the sake of comfort. Early bathing usually took place in open water, such as in pools or streams. However, filling bowls or basins with water so that water could be poured or splashed over the body, or used to wet cloths for rubbing over the body, became a popular alternative. The earliest constructed baths (bathing rooms) containing tubs for immersing the body, are believed to have been the baths in the palace complex at Knossos, Crete that date from the mid-2nd millennium BC. In the Bible, the first mention of bathing or washing is found in Genesis 18:4 and tells of Abraham offering to fetch water for his Holy visitors so that they might wash their feet. In ancient times, bathing the feet was a common practice. Not only was it a necessity and a comfort but also a social nicety. There are many instances foot washing found throughout scripture. The Bible's first account of full body bathing occurs In Exodus 2:5, when Pharaoh's daughter went down to bathe in the river (Nile) while her women servants walked alongside the river. From Herodotus: The ancient Egyptians were known to be great bathers. They practiced both private and public bathing, and allowed mixed bathing in public --as did the later Greeks and Romans. Egyptians preferred cold baths, and their priests bathed twice each day and twice at night. (Herod, ii, 37). From Porphyry: Egyptian priests bathed three times a day, and one nocturnal ablution. From Sir John G. Wilkinson: "We have little knowledge of the nature of their (Egyptian) baths, but as they were forbidden in deep mourning to indulge in them, we may conclude they were considered as a luxury, as well as a necessary comfort. In paintings in a tomb at Thebes, a lady is represented with four attendants, who wait upon her, and perform various (bathing) duties. One removes the jewelry and clothes…another pours water from a vase over her head… the third rubs her arms and body with her open hands…and a fourth seated near her holds a sweet scented flower to her nose, and supports her as she sits. The same subject is treated nearly in the same manner on some of the Greek vases (with) the water being poured over the bather who kneels, or is seated on the ground. (Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians Vol. 3, 1837 edition. P. 388.) While the Greek and Roman world enjoyed public bathing, and mixed bathing at various times in their culture, the Jews were generally private bathers. Most homes had an inner courtyard where the family could wash hidden from public view. However, the Bible describes the pools of Siloam, Hezekiah and Bethesda as having coverings, porches and walls, which leads researchers to believe that these pools were used for public bathing. (The Pool of Hezekiah was built in in 701 BC.) (Nehemiah. 3:15, John 5:2, and John 9:7). Besides bathing for body cleanliness, ancients also performed ritual bathing for religious reasons. Ablution, as these ceremonial washings were called, were usually done to render the person clean from sin or free from disease. God was strict with ancient Israel on bodily cleanliness as well as ethnic and spiritual purity. Hebrew priests were commanded to perform different types of washings as part of their priestly duties: ~Ex. 30:19-21: Aaron and his sons were commanded, upon penalty of death, to wash their hands and feet before each entry into the Tabernacle to offer a sacrifice. 1. Leviticus 8:6: Priests were washed with water and then anointed with oil before they assumed their priestly duties. 2. Leviticus 14:8, 9: Priests were required to bathe their entire body after pronouncing someone cured of leprosy. 3. Leviticus 16:4, 24: High Priests were required to bathe before each official act on the Day of Atonement. 4. Numbers 19:7: Priests who were ceremonially defiled were cleansed by bathing their body and washing their clothes. Ritual bathing could have other meanings as well. It could mark the end of mourning. (Ruth 3:3). Naaman was commanded to dip in the Jordan seven times to be cured of leprosy. (2 Kings 5:10). In the wilderness, John preached the baptism of repentance and baptized accordingly. Baptism was the full immersion of the body in water and was a physical expression of belief Mark 1:4. While many ancient tribes and cultures observed ritual bathing for one reason or another, the Jews, were especially zealous about the custom. Hand washing was of particular concern to them. From Easton's Bible Dictionary- Commentary on Mart 7:1-7: "The Jews, like other Orientals, used their fingers when taking food, and therefore washed their hands before doing so, for the sake of cleanliness. These verses in Mark make reference to the ablutions prescribed by (Jewish) tradition, and according to which the disciples ought to have [obeyed and] gone down to the side of the lake, washed their hands thoroughly, rubbing the fist of one hand in the hollow of the other, then placing the ten finger-tips together, holding the hands up so that any surplus water might flow down to the elbow and thence to the ground. To neglect to do this had come to be regarded as a great sin; a sin equal to the breach of any of the Ten Commandments. Moses had commanded washings oft, but always for some definite cause. But the Jews multiplied the legal observance till they formed a large body of precepts." (Washing) Copyright by Ancient Bible History - Eden Games Inc. 
Man with mud sealing his eyes.
Courtesy of Free Bible Images Text: Isaiah 44:18 "He hath shut their eyes that they cannot see and their hearts that they cannot understand."
In the Hebrew, the word for shut is tuach – as meaning to smear, daub or overlay, such as with lime. From Gesenius: "Tuach means to besmear, as to plaster – with the idea of permanently closing the eyes in a way that makes it impossible for them to be open. Sealing the eyes may or may not have been a means of causing permanent blindness." In the ancient world, blinding was a common practice that took different forms. 1. Prisoners of war often had their eyes put out by gouging, cutting, stabbing, or branding. A blinded soldier became incapable of fighting or escape. 2. Criminals found guilty of certain crimes were punished by blinding. The following account tells of Prince Khusrau, son of the Great Mogul Salim Nuruddin Mogul Jahangir (September 20, 1569 – November 8, 1627) with whom the Edward Terry and Sir Thomas Roe had spoken. (Edward Terry was the chaplain to the English Ambassador, Sir Thomas Roe): “The son, having been cast into prison for staging a rebellion against his father, had his eyes sealed up by having something put before (over) them. After three years, the sealing substance was removed that he might with freedom enjoy the light, though not his liberty. After much effort by the physicians vision was eventually restored to one eye.” ("A Relation of Sir Thomas Roe's Voyage into the East Indies”. Published by J. Macock; London. 1665.) More often, shutting up or sealing the eyes was done to cure sick eyes. Pliny the Great wrote extensively on medial cures, which included Egyptian and Roman eye salves that contained such ingredients as kohl, bees wax, honey, olive oil, liver and leek juice (among others). From Pliny the Great: "The mixtures, in their final form, were slathered or painted onto the sick or infected eyes and allowed to remain overnight or several days." And: "Hieracium" is the name given to eye-salve, which is essentially composed of the following ingredients: four ounces of salammoniac, two of Cyprian verdigris, the same quantity of the kind of copperas which is call chalcanthum, one ounce of misy and six of saffron. All these substances being pounded together with Thassian vinegar and made up into pills*. It is an excellent remedy for incipient glaucoma and cataract, as also for films upon the eyes, eruptions, albugo and disease of the eyelids. ("The Natural History of Pliny", Vol. 6, Ch.27; Transcribed, London (1857). Occasionally, eyes were sealed for ceremonial reasons. From Dr. Alex Russell, M.D: (At a Jewish wedding in Aleppo) “The bride is seated in an open arm-chair, in the middle of the open Divan, or Alcove, with three enormous painted wax tapers burning before her. She is covered with a red gauze veil, through which her face and dress are plainly enough discernible. She is richly dressed in Venetian silks, and besides the usual jewels of gold, she is adorned with precious stones and a profusion of pearls. One of the solemnities of the wedding was to fasten the eyelids together with a gum, and the bridegroom is the person) to be the one who opens the bride’s eyes at the appointed time." ("Ritual Blinding ", Natural History of Aleppo, P.132. Published 1756) In the Bible, Shut the Eyes is an ancient idiom that figuratively means deliberate mental blindness –to make a conscious choice not to see what is. In this chapter of Isaiah, God is admonishing Israel against making idols and giving adoration to gods other than Himself. In this particular text, those who fashioned and worshiped idols are spoken of as self-blinded by choice; that in spite of all the evidence to the contrary that God is the one and only supreme god, these folks have sealed themselves into total darkness. And because they have made conscious choice to be spiritually blind, God condemns them to remain in their state of ignorance. This same idea can be found in Jeremiah. 5:21. “Hear now this, O foolish people, and without understanding; which have eyes, and see not; which have ears, and hear not." *It has been suggest that perhaps this salve was put into pill (dry) form so as to preserve it or make it easier to store until needed; and then, before it was administered to the eye, an excipient was added to it to put it into salve form. Copyright by Ancient Bible History - Eden Games Inc.  Stele of "Baal Holding a thunderbolt" found in the ruins of Ugarit (Ras Shamra in Syria). Text: Judges 9:33
"The Children of Israel...made Baal-Berith their god." Baal-Berith means "lord of a covenant" or the "god who enters into a covenant with his worshipers. He was just one of many gods chosen from surrounding cultures that the Israelites worshiped at different times and caused them to wander away from Yahweh. There is little history of Baal-Berith and no description of him. According to Mela and Pliny, he received his name from the Phoenician city of Berytus. The Phoenician historian, Sanchoninatho, believed that his name came from the Phoenician deity, Beruth. Also, there is no recorded religious ceremony associated with his worship. Either the Shechemites or the Israelites built a temple to him at Shechem (Judges 9:46). And some Bible scholars believe that the Jews imitated their religious rituals of Yahweh with this new god in his temple. Baal-Berith is also known as Elberith, the covenant-keeping god, though it is unknown what kind of a covenant Israel made. The Vulgate understands it to be an agreement for Baal to become Israel's god. Some sources believe that Baal-Berith ruled over a league of Canaanite cities and that perhaps the covenant had something to do with Israels relationship with these Canaanite people or the Canaanite inhabitants of Shechem. In ancient times, an alliance between two tribes would frequently be cemented by a common worship ceremony. The continued practice of this worship ceremony kept the agreement intact. Israel entered into a number of these political-religious alliances and it led them into idolatry. One suggestion concerning what the alliance may have been was that the Shechemites traced their origin back to Hamor, which literally means ass. According to the Mari Documents, among the Amorites the expression "killing the ass" was synonymous with "making a treaty". Hence the "sons of Hamor" or "sons of an ass" may mean "members of a confederacy". Baal-Berith may have been the god summoned to witness such a treaty. Copyright by Ancient Bible History - Eden Games Inc.  Amphitheater in Ephesis Text: Acts 19:31 "Certain of the chief of Asia, which were his friends sent unto him, desiring him that he would not adventure himself into the theater."
In this text, the chief of Asia are the Asiarchae. The Asiarchae were a group of wealthy and influential men chosen from the important cities of Asia to preside over the Roman Empire's annual religious festivals and public games held each May to honor the Roman gods and the Emperor. It was from their ranks that the high priest of the imperial cult was appointed annually. The duties of the Asiarchae included: 1. Presiding over all the public events associated with the festivals and games. 2. To insure that all religious services and honors of the emperor (at the events) were performed and observed properly. 3. To promote the cult of the emperor and of Rome. 4. To secure allegiance to Rome. Because their duties were semi-religious, some scholars believe that the Asiarchae may have been called priests and their office a priesthood. According to The Expositor's Bible Commentary: "Each year, an Asiarchae was elected for the entire province, and an additional Asiarchae was elected for each city that had a temple honoring the emperor. Once their election was confirmed and made valid at Rome, the members of the league bore their titles for life…and while it (the league) did not have political authority, it served Rome's interests by securing loyalty to Roman rule."(Zondervan, 2007) Each man served for one year but could be re-elected. According to Manners and Customs of the Bible - #849: "to being a member of the Asiarchae was a greatly coveted position. It was important that all the men serving be wealthy. Their duties took them to various cities throughout the empire and the games at which they officiated were costly. While being a member of the Asiarchae was a high honor, they were still required to meet all of their own expenses." (James Freeman, Whitaker House, 1996.) Among each group who served, one was designated as the president. How the officiating duties were divided is still a matter of scholarly controversy. Whether all presided over the games as a group or whether one was made chief and the others assisted is still not known. No matter the way it happened, while performing their ceremonial tasks, all members dressed in purple and wore garlands on their heads. The introductory text is the conclusion of the account of Paul's wishing to preach in the 24,500 seat theatre in Ephesus and the crowd taking offense. Paul's friends among the Asiarchae warned him of the crowd's riotous mood and Paul was saved from encount-ering a mob. Bible commentators have speculated that while these Asiarchae friends of Paul's may not have been Christian converts, it would appear that they held a respect for Paul and possibly his work. Copyright by Ancient Bible History - Eden Games Inc. Text: Isaiah 52:10
"The Lord hath made bare his holy arm in the eyes of all the nations." To make bare the arm is an ancient metaphor meaning: "Preparation for active work, especially for war." It closely resembles the modern expression "rolling up one's sleeves to do hard work". A more literal rendering of the verse is: "make naked the the stretched-out arm as a monument of holy force." In ancient times, the "arm" was symbolic for "power". When the ancients wanted to make known their strong feelings or intent, they would raise an arm and shake the fist. The loose sleeves of their robes would drop downward, revealing the bared arm. This was a commonly recognized sign meaning that there would be no further argument on the matter, prepare for battle. From Rev. W. Jowett: "The loose sleeve of the Arab shirt, as well as of the outer garment leaves the arm so completely free, that in an instant the left hand, passing up the right arm, makes it bare; and this is done when a person, a soldier, for example, about to strike with his sword, intends to give the arm full play." ("Christian Researches in Syria and the Holy Land", p.208. Published 1826.) Other Biblical mentions of "arm bearing" can also be found in Isaiah 53:1 and Ezekiel 4:7. In the introductory text, Yahweh is portrayed as a swift and mighty warrior fully prepared to inflict a terrible righteous punishment. Ezekiel's use of this phrase imparted imagery well-understood by any of his listeners (readers), both Babylonian and Jew alike. Copyright by Ancient Bible History - Eden Games Inc. 
Text: 2 Corinthians 12:12 - Truly the signs of an apostle were wrought among you in all patience, in signs, and wonders, and mighty deeds.
The word Apostle comes from the Greek Apostolos, meaning an ambassador of the Gospel, a commissioner of Christ, or an official a messenger. The word is used to designate all those who were sent out to be missionaries and spread the gospel of Jesus Christ to the Gentile world. Even Christ, Himself, was described as being an apostle. From Hebrews 3:1: "Wherefore, holy brethren, partakers of the heavenly calling, consider the Apostle and High Priest of our profession, Christ Jesus." The four main requirements for an apostle were: 1. That they had personal knowledge of the Lord and could testify to his resurrection. (John 15:27; Acts 1:21) 2. That Christ called them to their office. (Luke 6:13) 3. That they were inspired by the Holy Spirit; free from error and mistake in their public teaching, whether by word or by writing. (John 14:26) 4. That they be able to work miracles. (Mark 16:20) Paul was not one of the original 12 disciples, but he was considered qualified to hold the office of apostle for the following reasons: 1. Seen Jesus Christ. (Acts 9:17; 1 Cor. 9:1) 2. Christ chose Him. (Acts 9:15) 3. Received the Holy Spirit. (Acts 9:17) 4. Worked miracles. (Acts 20:9-10, Acts 19:11) Because the way in which scripture is worded, it is possible, that in a vague sense, several other men were also designated as apostles or messengers 1. Titus (2 Corinthians 8:23); 2. Epaphroditus (Philippians 2:25); 3. Barnabus and Saul (called by the Holy Spirit (Acts 13:1-5). After the conclusion of their ministry and their death, there were no more apostles after these men. Copyright by Ancient Bible History - Eden Games Inc. |
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